KETEP 세계에너지시장정보

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 

Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 

2 Goal and scope definition .................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 
 2.1 Goal ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8 
 2.2 Scope ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 
  2.2.1 Functional unit ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8 
  2.2.2 Life cycle impact assessment ................................................................................................................................................ 9 
  2.2.3 Case study and delivery options ....................................................................................................................................... 10 
   2.2.3.1 On-site production .......................................................................................................................................................... 10 
   2.2.3.2 Compressed hydrogen (C-H2) .................................................................................................................................. 11 
   2.2.3.3 Liquid hydrogen (L-H2) ................................................................................................................................................. 11 
   2.2.3.4 Ammonia (NH3) ................................................................................................................................................................. 12 
   2.2.3.5 Liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC) ............................................................................................................ 12 
   2.2.3.6 Methanol (MeOH) ............................................................................................................................................................ 13 
   2.2.3.7 Synthetic natural gas (SNG) ..................................................................................................................................... 14 

3 Life cycle inventory ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 
 3.1 Common activities for the transported hydrogen delivery pathways ....................................................................... 15 
  3.1.1 Electricity generation ................................................................................................................................................................ 15 
  3.1.2 Hydrogen losses .......................................................................................................................................................................... 16 
  3.1.3 Renewable hydrogen production ....................................................................................................................................... 16 
  3.1.4 Hydrogen compression and storage ............................................................................................................................... 17 
  3.1.5 Transportation .............................................................................................................................................................................. 17 
   3.1.5.1 Ships ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 17 
   3.1.5.2 Pipelines ................................................................................................................................................................................ 18 
  3.1.6 Hydrogen combustion .............................................................................................................................................................. 18 
  3.1.7 Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................................................................ 19 
 3.2 Compressed hydrogen ............................................................................................................................................................................. 20 
  3.2.1 Compressed hydrogen transportation ........................................................................................................................... 20 
   3.2.1.1 Ship .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 
   3.2.1.2 Pipeline .................................................................................................................................................................................. 20 
 3.3 Liquid hydrogen ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 21 
  3.3.1 Hydrogen liquefaction .............................................................................................................................................................. 21 
  3.3.2 Liquid hydrogen storage, transportation, and delivery ....................................................................................... 21 
 3.4 Ammonia .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22 
  3.4.1 Ammonia synthesis ................................................................................................................................................................... 22 
  3.4.2 Ammonia storage ....................................................................................................................................................................... 22
  3.4.3 Ammonia transportation ........................................................................................................................................................ 22 
   3.4.3.1 Ship .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 
   3.4.3.2 Pipeline .................................................................................................................................................................................. 23 
  3.4.4 Ammonia dehydrogenation and hydrogen delivery .............................................................................................. 23 
 3.5 LOHC ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 
  3.5.1 LOHC hydrogenation ................................................................................................................................................................. 24 
  3.5.2 LOHC storage ................................................................................................................................................................................ 24 
  3.5.3 LOHC transportation ................................................................................................................................................................. 25 
   3.5.3.1 Ship .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 25 
   3.5.3.2 Pipeline .................................................................................................................................................................................. 25 
  3.5.4 LOHC dehydrogenation and H2 delivery ....................................................................................................................... 25 
 3.6 Methanol .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27 
  3.6.1 CO2 production .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27 
  3.6.2 Methanol synthesis .................................................................................................................................................................... 27 
  3.6.3 Methanol storage ........................................................................................................................................................................ 28 
  3.6.4 Methanol transportation ......................................................................................................................................................... 28 
   3.6.4.1 Ship .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 
   3.6.4.2 Pipeline .................................................................................................................................................................................. 28 
  3.6.5 Methanol dehydrogenation and hydrogen delivery ............................................................................................... 29 
 3.7 SNG ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 
  3.7.1 SNG synthesis ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30 
  3.7.2 SNG storage and transportation ....................................................................................................................................... 30 
   3.7.2.1 Ship .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 
   3.7.2.2 Pipeline .................................................................................................................................................................................. 31 
  3.7.3 SNG steam reforming and H2 delivery .......................................................................................................................... 31 
 3.8 On-site hydrogen production ............................................................................................................................................................... 32 
  3.8.1 Steam methane reforming ................................................................................................................................................... 32 
  3.8.2 Electrolysis ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 

4 Impact assessment ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 
 4.1 Acidification .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 
 4.2 Climate change ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 34 
  4.2.1 Packing .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 34 
  4.2.2 Transportation .............................................................................................................................................................................. 35 
  4.2.3 Unpacking ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 36 
  4.2.4 Life cycle .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 37 
 4.3 Ecotoxicity, freshwater ............................................................................................................................................................................ 39 
 4.4 Particulate matter ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 
 4.5 Eutrophication, marine ............................................................................................................................................................................ 41 
 4.6 Eutrophication, freshwater ................................................................................................................................................................... 42
 4.7 Eutrophication, terrestrial ...................................................................................................................................................................... 43 
 4.8 Human toxicity, cancer ............................................................................................................................................................................ 44 
 4.9 Human toxicity, non-cancer.................................................................................................................................................................. 45 
 4.10 Ionising radiation ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 46 
 4.11 Land use ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47 
 4.12 Ozone depletion ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 48 
 4.13 Photochemical ozone formation ....................................................................................................................................................... 49 
 4.14 Resource use, fossils ................................................................................................................................................................................ 50 
 4.15 Resource use, minerals and metals ................................................................................................................................................ 51 
 4.16 Water use ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 52 
 4.17 Single score results ................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 

5 Sensitivity analyses............................................................................................................................................................................................... 56 
 5.1 Electrolyser efficiency.............................................................................................................................................................................. 56 
 5.2 Electricity generation ................................................................................................................................................................................ 58 
  5.2.1 Renewable electricity generation ...................................................................................................................................... 58 
   5.2.1.1 Renewable source: solar vs. wind ......................................................................................................................... 58 
   5.2.1.2 Environmental impact renewable infrastructure ........................................................................................ 59 
  5.2.2 Electricity grid mix ...................................................................................................................................................................... 62 
 5.3 Short-term climate impact (GWP20) ................................................................................................................................................ 64 
 5.4 Losses of hydrogen and hydrogen carriers ................................................................................................................................ 66 
 5.5 Shipping fuel .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 68 
 5.6 Distance ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 70 
 5.7 Water source: freshwater vs. seawater ........................................................................................................................................ 72 
 5.8 Energy for unpacking ............................................................................................................................................................................... 74 
 5.9 Carbon capture and storage for on-site SMR ........................................................................................................................... 76 
 5.10 Efficiency of the processes .................................................................................................................................................................. 78 
 5.11 Impact assessment method ................................................................................................................................................................ 80 
 5.12 Other sensitivity analyses ..................................................................................................................................................................... 82 
  5.12.1 LOHC: Credit for hydrochloric acid co-production .................................................................................................. 82 
  5.12.2 Methanol and SNG: Heat source for direct air capture (DAC) ......................................................................... 82 
  5.12.3 SNG: Catalyst for SNG synthesis ....................................................................................................................................... 82 
  5.12.4 SNG: Heat co-production from steam reforming ................................................................................................... 82 

6 Conclusions................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 83 

7 Recommendations and future work ........................................................................................................................................................... 85 

References .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 86 

List of abbreviations and definitions ................................................................................................................................................................. 91 

List of figures ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 92 

List of tables ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 95 

Annex I: Electricity mixes ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 96

Annex II: Electrolyser inventory ............................................................................................................................................................................. 97 

Annex III: Energy consumption for transportation ..................................................................................................................................... 98