KETEP 세계에너지시장정보

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Foreword .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4 

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5 

Executive summary .............................................................................................................................................................................. 6 

1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 
 1.1 Geopolitical context and the role of wind energy ............................................................................................. 8 
 1.2 EU Policy context: Ambitious wind energy targets, with secure access to the necessary critical raw materials ........... 9 
 1.3 Description of wind turbines ...................................................................................................................................... 11 
 1.4 Rare-earth permanent magnets and their role in technology ................................................................ 14 

2 Supply chain mapping and risk analysis ........................................................................................................................ 16 
 2.1 Supply risk analysis ......................................................................................................................................................... 17 
 2.2 Raw materials in wind turbines ................................................................................................................................ 19 
 2.3 NdFeB magnet supply chain structure ................................................................................................................. 31 
 2.4 Companies along the wind turbine supply chain ............................................................................................ 33 

3 Material streams in wind turbines ..................................................................................................................................... 38 
 3.1 Material demand scenarios and supply/demand balance ......................................................................... 38 
 3.2 Decommissioned material streams of rare-earth elements ................................................................... 48 

4 Circularity in wind turbines .................................................................................................................................................... 52 
 4.1 Wind energy circularity challenges ......................................................................................................................... 52 
 4.2 NdFeB magnet circularity patterns ......................................................................................................................... 54 
 4.3 Systematic analysis of scientific literature on the circularity of NdFeB permanentmagnets in wind energy applications ..... 60 
 4.4 Circularity and sustainability in Chinese industry and policies ............................................................... 61 

5 Substitution, advanced materials and technological developments ............................................................. 68 
 5.1 Rare earths, permanent magnets and generators......................................................................................... 68 
 5.2 Balsa wood and blades ................................................................................................................................................. 71 

6 Conclusions and policy recommendations .................................................................................................................... 72 
 6.1 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................................................... 72 
 6.2 Policy recommendations .............................................................................................................................................. 74 

References ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 77 

List of abbreviations and definitions ...................................................................................................................................... 96 

List of figures ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 98 

List of tables ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 100 

Annexes ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 101 
 Annex 1. Methodology for the supply chain analysis .......................................................................................... 101 
 Annex 2. Historical wind turbine deployment shares........................................................................................... 102 
 Annex 3. Global material supply and material demand scenarios .............................................................. 105 
 Annex 4. Sources from the scientific literature analysis ................................................................................... 105 
 Annex 5. Systematic analysis of scientific literature on the circularity of NdFeB permanent magnets in wind energy applications – Complementary information ..... 107